Echinochloa (ms.) Nov 2009

ECHINOCHLOA

B.K.Simon, C.M.Weiller, R.D.Webster & P.W.Michael

Echinochloa P. Beauv., Echinochloa P.Beauv, Ess. Agrostogr. 53 (1812); from the Greek echinos (hedgehog) and chloa (grass), alluding to the echinate inflorescence branches.

Type: E. crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv.

Annual or perennial, rhizomatous or without rhizomes, stoloniferous or without stolons. Flowering culms erect or decumbent. Leaves; ligule a fringe of hairs or absent; blades  hairy or glabrous, with smooth margins or with scabrous margins. Plants with hermaphrodite florets. Inflorescence a panicle, exserted at maturity or not fully exserted. Primary branches with spikelets appressed to the rachis, distinctly grooved or angled, not winged, scabrous on the margins or relatively smooth on the margins or hairy on the margins. Spikelets with disarticulation at the base of the spikelet, solitary or paired or in clusters, dorsally compressed, lanceolate to obovate. Glumes 2, very unequal, distinctly keeled to rounded on the back; lower glume ovate or elliptic, 1–7 nerved, membranous to chartaceous, acute, muticous or mucronate; upper glume 5–9 nerved, acuminate to acute, muticous or mucronate or awned. Lower floret sterile, or male; lemma membranous to chartaceous, 5 nerved or 7 nerved, strigose, with apex acuminate to acute, awn 0–80 mm long; palea acute or with a rounded apex. Upper floret bisexual, subequal to the lower floret or shorter than the lower floret; lemma yellow, decidedly firmer than glumes, cartilaginous to indurate, smooth, lanceolate to elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point or the apex gradually differentiated into a membranous green point, acute to acuminate, mucronate or awned; palea cartilaginous to indurate, smooth. Hilum short. 2n = 18, 36,  54, 72, 90, 108 and 126.

A genus of 40–50 species in warm regions; 19 species in Australia, 10 native and 9 introduced, one of the latter possibly with native forms also. This treatment follows the concepts of P.W.Michael & J.W.Vickery (see below).

A difficult genus of numerous intergrading forms, its diversity apparently stemming from self-pollination combined with fluent adaptation to a wide range of aquatic and ruderal habits. There is much uncertainty as to how this complex should be divided into species (Clayton and Renvoize, 1986). The taxonomy of this genus and especially that of E. crus-galli is extremely complicated and not all taxa recognized by some are readily and easily distinguishable. This is caused by easy selfing whereby local races are formed that may be maintained because of ecological adaptations and selection by agricultural practices, e.g. by mechanical or manual harvesting of rice and other cereals, which have selected a number of competitive mimics in grain fields.

Joyce W. Vickery, Echinochloa in Tindale, M.D., Flora of New South Wales No 19. Gramineae, Part 2, 189–211 (1975); P.W. Michael & Joyce W. Vickery, Three new species of Echinochloa from northern Australia. Telopea 2: 25–29 (1980); P.W. Michael, Taxonomy and distribution of Echinochloa species with special reference to their occurrence as weeds of rice, Weed Control in Rice, IRRI, pp 291–306 (1983); W.J.Crins, Echinochloa in The genera of Paniceae (Gramineae: Panicoideae) in the Southeastern United States, 254-262 (1991); P.W.Michael, The taxonomy and distribution of Echinochloa species (barnyard grasses) in the Asian-Pacific region, with a review of pertinent biological studies, Proc. 18th Asian-Pacific Weed Sci Soc.Conf. pp 57–66 (2001); P.W.Michael, Echinochla in M.E.Barkworth, K.M.Capels, S.Long & M.B.Piep (eds.) Flora of North America North of Mexico 25: 390–403 (2003).

Note:- Lengths of the spikelets do not include awns. Colour of caryopses refers only to those which are fully ripe. Chromosome numbers cited are only those which are confidently believed to refer to the species described here.

1 Leaves;  ligule a fringe of long stiff hairs; plants perennial

    2 Spikelets awnless

1. *E. pyramidalis

     2: Spikelets mucronate or awned

             3 Culms less than 1 m tall; upper leaf blades less than 10 mm wide; ligular hairs absent in uppermost leaves

2. E. picta

              3: Culms to 3.6 m tall; upper leaf blades to 20 mm wide; ligular hairs present in all leaves

 3.*E. polystachya

1: Leaves;  ligule absent or with cilia to 1.5 mm long; plants annual

    4  Inflorescence axis ± smooth; glumes and lower lemma ± smooth

          and lightly scabrous on nerves

  4. E. lacunaria

            4: Inflorescence axis ± strongly scabrous; glumes and lower lemma

        ± scabrous both on and between nerves

          5  Spikelets at maturity very turgid and subglobose

               6   Spikelets c. 4.5 mm long; lower lemma with a

                       median longitudinal groove

 5.  E. turneriana

               6:  Spikelets c. 4 mm long; lower lemma without

                             a median longitudinal  groove                                                                                              

             7  Spikelets pallid; caryopsis whitish

 6. *E. frumentacea

                     7: Spikelets purplish to blackish‑brown; caryopsis brownish

 7. *E. esculenta

         5:  Spikelets at maturity less turgid and subglobose

                8 Mature caryopsis 2.5‑3.5 mm long

                     9  Spikelets often with  well‑developed anthocyanin pigmentation; upper floret 3.5‑4.5 mm long

8. *E. oryzoides

                      9: Spikelets without well‑developed anthocyanin pigmentation; upper floret 4.5‑6.5 mm long

                                10  Upper floret 5‑6.5 mm long; anthers 1.5‑2.1 mm long

 9. E.  kimberleyensis

                                 10: Upper floret 4.5‑5 mm long; anthers 2.5‑2.8 mm long

10. E. macrandra

                8: Mature caryopsis less than 2.5 mm long

                     11 Upper glume noticeably awned

                           12  Upper glume with awns c. 3.5 mm long

11. E. dietrichiana

                           12: Upper glume with awns up to 7 mm long

                             13  Inflorescence 20‑35 cm long;

                                       spikelets 3‑4.2 mm long, with purplish awns

 12. E. telmatophila                                        

                                     13:  Inflorescence to 15 cm long;

                                         spikelets 4‑4.5 mm long, with pale awns

13. E. elliptica

                     11: Upper glume not or scarcely awned

                         14 Inflorescence drooping with soft flexuous  branches

                                racemes compound; awns curved, up to 15 mm long                                                                                                                                                                

14. *E. cruspavonis

                         14: Inflorescence usually erect with branches

                                   stiffly spreading; racemes simple

                                      15 Upper floret apex gradually narrowing into a firm tip to 1.5 mm long;

                                            awns straight, up to  7 mm long

5.*E. muricata var. microstachya

                                      15: Upper floret apex abruptly terminating

                                                         in a fragile tip to 0.5 mm long

                                                  16 Spikelets 3.5‑5 mm long excluding  cusps and awns when present

 16.E. inundata

                                          16:  Spikelets mostly less than 3.5 mm long

                                    17  Spikelets awnless to cuspidate, close together in 4 irregular rows;

                                         caryopsis 1.2-1.6 mm long, whitish

 17.  *E. colona

                                    17: Spikelets awnless to strongly awned, not

                                                     in 4 rows; caryopsis 1.4‑2 mm long,  brownish

 18. *E. crusgalli

1. *Echinochloa pyramidalis (Lamk.) Hitch. & Chase, Contr. U.S. Natl Herb. 18: 345 (1917)

Panicum pyramidale Lam., Tabl. Encycl. 1: 171 (1791). T: E. Senegal, D. Roussillon; holo: P.

Illustrations: L.K.A.Chippindall in D.Meredith (ed.), Grasses Pastures S. Africa 360, fig. 310 (1955); Linda A.Vorobik in M.E.Barkworth, K.M.Capels, S.Long & M.B.Piep (eds.) Flora of North America North of Mexico 25: 395 (2003); J.Jessop, G.R.M.Dashorst & F.M.James, Grasses of South Australia 449, fig.381 (2006)..

Perennial, rhizomatous. Flowering culms erect , 100–250 cm tall, 5–8 noded. Leaves; ligule a fringe of hairs, 1–4 mm long; blades  18–70 cm long, 5–15 mm wide, with scabrous margins. Inflorescence 13–30 cm long. Primary branches with spikelets appressed to the rachis, 3.5–9 cm long, scabrous on the margins or hairy on the margins. Spikelets paired or in clusters, lanceolate to elliptic, 2.9–3.9 mm long, 1.3–1.5 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 1–1.5 mm long, ovate, 3–5 nerved, membranous, acute, muticous or mucronate; upper glume 2.9–3.9 mm long, 5 nerved, acute, muticous or mucronate. Lower floret male; lemma 2.8–3.8 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.3–1.5 mm wide, membranous, 5 nerved, with apex acute; palea acute to with a rounded apex. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret; lemma 2.7–3.7 mm long, yellow, cartilaginous, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, acute, mucronate; palea cartilaginous, smooth or uniformily striate. Anthers 1–1.5 mm long. 2n = 18 (T. Yabuno, Cytologia 53:298 (1966)), 2n = 36   (T. Yabuno, Cytologia 33:513 (1968), 2n = 54 (J.de Wet & L.  Anderson, Cytologia 21:5 (1956), 2n = 72 (Nuňez in L.R. Parodi, Gramíneas Bonarienses, 4th ed., 34 (1946) and 2n = 90 (T. Yabuno, Cytologia 33: 513 (1968).  Antelope Grass.

Introduced from tropical Africa; known from only a few collections and recently found growing wild in the northern coastal rivers region of NSW (Michael 2001). Flowering Mar. to Oct. Map 1071.

W.A.: Mt. Many Peaks, Albany, Oct 1936, W.P.Norman s.n. (PERTH); Queen's Park, May 1933, C. Orchard s.n. (PERTH). S.A.: Renmark, R.Bates 14430 (AD). Qld: Lawes, W.J.Bisset 5673 (CANB).  N.S.W.: Emigrant Creek, c. 2 km downstream of Tintenbar Bridge, E. S Jacobs 8504 (NSW).

A very variable species, unusual in the genus in that it shows a partial degree of self-incompatibility (T. Yabuno, Jap.J. Genetics 45: 189-192 (1979)). Diagnostic features include the ciliate ligule, awnless spikelets, and its perennial habit with well-developed rhizomes. Introduced to Australia as a potential useful perennial fodder grass and now naturalised in a few places.

2. Echinochloa picta (J.König) P.W.Michael, Phillip. J. Weed Sci. 5: 18 (1978)

Panicum pictum J.König, Naturforscher (Halle) 23: 204 (1788). T: India;  holo: M. in Herb. Schreber, described by Nees in Martius-Flora Brasiliensis Vol. 2 Part1- Gramineae pp 260-261 (1829)

[E. stagnina auct. non (Retz.) P.Beauv.: S.T.Blake, Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland 62: 91 (1952)].

Illustrations: D.Sharp & B.K.Simon, AusGrass (2002).

Perennial. Flowering culms decumbent, 30–100 cm tall. Leaves; ligule a fringe of hairs, absent in uppermost leaves; blades  10–45 cm long, 3–20 mm wide. Inflorescence 9–32 cm long. Primary branches 4–8 cm long. Spikelets ovate, 3–5.2 mm long, 1.5–2 mm wide. Glumes distinctly keeled; lower glume 1.6–2 mm long, triangular, 3–5 nerved, abruptly acuminate, muticous; upper glume 3.4–5.2 mm long, 5–7 nerved, mucronate to awned (shortly). Lower floret male; lemma as long to slightly longer than upper glume, 3.5–5.3 mm wide, chartaceous, with apex acuminate, awn 5–7 mm long; palea acute. Upper floret slightly shorter than the lower floret; lemma 3–4.5 mm long, brown, cartilaginous, elliptic, acute; palea chartaceous, smooth. 2n = 126 (T. Yabuno, Genetica 41:312 (1968), as E. stagnina strain 60-10). Fig xx.

Native; Occurring from India through S.E Asia to New Guinea, Fiji and Cape York Peninsula, Qld in Australia. Flowering Jan. to May (&Dec.). Map 1073.

Qld: About 45 miles from Aurukun, Aug.1964, W.F.MacKenzie (BRI); Arukun, Jul.1939, Superintendant of Mission s.n.;.

This species has been confused with E. stagnina, which is mainly has an African distribution. However Michael does report E. picta also to be in Africa, although FTEA and FZ accounts by Clayton mention it as only being an Asian species. It is in a group (Michael 2001) with spikelets which are ovate to oblong (E. polystachya) as opposed to elliptical or lanceolate (E. stagnina). Veldkamp has both species in his Flora Malesiana account and his main distinguishing features are:

Spikelets 3–4.2 mm long; lower glume abruptly acuminate. Awn of lower lemma 0–4 mm long                                                                                                                                                      E. picta

Spikelets 4.1–4.9 mm long; lower glume gradually acuminate to muronulate. Awn of lower lemma 4–17                                                                                   mm long                                                                                                        E. stagnina                        


3. *Echinochloa polystachya (Kunth) Hitchc., Contr. U.S. Natl. Herb.  22:: 135 (1920)

Oplismenus polystachyus Kunth, Nov. Gen. Sp. 1: 107 (1815 [1816). T: Humboldt & Bonpland s.n., Apr, Venezuela: Amazonas: prope Maypure; holo: P; iso: US, n.v.

Echinochloa praestans P.W.Michael, Telopea 2: 31 (1980). T: c. 3 miles [4.8 km] N of Hisin village, Central Province, Papua New Guinea, 16 Aug 1962, P.J.Darbyshire 815; holo: CANB; iso: A, BH, BO, BRI, GH, K, L, PNH, US.

Illustrations: D.Sharp & B.K.Simon, AusGrass (2002); Linda A.Vorobik in M.E.Barkworth, K.M.Capels, S.Long & M.B.Piep (eds.) Flora of North America North of Mexico 25: 395 (2003) as var. polystachya.

Perennial. Flowering culms decumbent, 100–360 cm tall, 8-15-noded. Leaves; ligule a fringe of hairs, 2–5 mm long; blades  20–50 cm long, 10–35 mm wide, with scabrous margins. Inflorescence 15–30 cm long. Primary branches with spikelets appressed to the rachis, 2–9 cm long. Spikelets ovate to obl, 3.5–6 mm long, 1.6–2.1 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 1.9–4.2 mm long, ovate, 5–7 nerved, chartaceous, acute, muticous; upper glume 3.3–5 mm long, 5–7 nerved, acuminate, mucronate. Lower floret male; lemma 3.3–6 mm long, 10–30% longer than upper glume, 1.8–2.2 mm wide, chartaceous, 5-7 nerved, with apex acuminate, awn 1.5–2 mm long; palea acute. Upper floret slightly shorter than the lower floret; lemma 3.5–4.5 mm long, cream, cartilaginous, elliptic, acute, apiculate; palea cartilaginous, smooth. Anthers 1.3–2.7 mm long. 2n = ca. 108 (R.W. Pohl & G. Davidse, Brittonia 23:300 (1971)). Fig xx.

Introduced from South America; coastal N.T. , central coastal Qld and northern NSW,  with a few records from more inland localities. Flowering Jan. to Sep. Map 1072 & 1074.

N.T.: Finnis R. floodpain, I.D.Cowie 1037 & B.Wilson (BRI, DNA, MEL). Qld: Lisgar, P.Anning 648 (BRI); Black Rock, Ingham, Feb.1996, S.Fighera s.n.(BRI); Cardwell, R.Steel 378 (BRI); Marklands, 20m km S of Sarina, B.K.Simon 4137 & H.Bishop (BRI); 26 km NW of Marlborough, N.Snow 7395 & B.K.Simon (BRI).

A ponded pasture species introduced with Hymenachne acutigluma. The local cultivar has been given the name ‘Amity’. Sometimes referred to as E. polystachya var. polystachya, to distinguish it from E. polystachya var. spectabilis (E. spectabilis), a South American taxon not found in Australia.



4. Echinochloa lacunaria (F. Muell.) P.W.Michael & Vickery, Telopea 1: 44 (1975)

Panicum lacunarium F.Muell., Trans. & Proc. Victorian Inst. Advancem. Sci. 1854–1855: 47 (1855); Panicum crus-galli var. lacunarium (F.Muell.)F.Muell., Fragm. 8: 198 (1874) in obs.; Echinochloa crus-galli var. lacunaria (F.Muell.) Hughes, Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1923: 320 (1923). T: Around the Murray lagoons, [near Tailem Bend, S.A.], F.Mueller s.n.; holo: MEL (photo BRI); iso: K (photo BRI),  NSW).

Illustrations: S.W.L.Jacobs & T.A.James in G.J.Harden (ed.), Fl. New South Wales 4: 474 (1993); D.Sharp & B.K.Simon, AusGrass (2002).

Annual. Flowering culms erect, 15–70 cm tall, 2–4 noded. Leaves; ligule absent; blades  9–40 cm long, 4–14 mm wide, with scabrous margins. Inflorescence 8–12 cm long. Primary branches with spikelets appressed to the rachis, 3.5–6 cm long, relatively smooth on the margins. Spikelets paired or in clusters, elliptic, 4.3–5.1 mm long, 1.7–2.2 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 1.5–2.4 mm long, ovate, 3 nerved, membranous, acute, mucronate; upper glume 4.1–4.9 mm long, acuminate, mucronate. Lower floret sterile, or male; lemma 4.1–4.9 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.7–2.2 mm wide, membranous, 5 nerved, with apex acuminate; palea acute. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret; lemma 3.4–3.9 mm long, yellow (pale yellow when immature), indurate, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, apically rounded, mucronate; palea indurate, smooth. Anthers 0.85–1.1 mm long.

Endemic; known from five collections from low lying seasonally-wet areas of S.A. and N.S.W. Flowering Apr. to Sep. Map 1060.

S.A.: Type specimen. N.S.W.: Menindee, Dec 1897, W.H.Hughes s.n.(NSW); Kinchega, Menindee, Apr 1949, D.L.W.Henderson s.n. (NSW); bed of Menindee Ck, Sep 1949, D.L.W.Henderson s.n. (NSW); W. shore of Menindee Lake, T. Auld 418 (NSW); Yartla Lake, 'Polia', 50 km NW of Pooncarie,  M. Lucy 3455 (NSW).

This species is recognised as Poorly Known in J.D.Briggs & J.H.Leigh, Rare and Threatened Australian Plants (1995). The lack of hairs or distinct scabrosities on the spikelet and inflorescence branches is diagnostic. It is morphologically most similar to E. turneriana.

5. Echinochloa turneriana (Domin) J.M. Black, Fl. S. Australia 2nd edn, 1: 72 (1943)

Panicum turnerianum Domin, Biblioth. Bot. 85: 307 (1915). T: Rolling Downs between Hughenden and Cloncurry, Qld, Feb. 1910, K.Domin [1133, 1134, 1135, 1136]; lecto, here chosen: PR (photos BRI).

Illustrations: S.W.L.Jacobs & T.A.James in G.J.Harden (ed.), Fl. New South Wales 4: 476 (1993); D.Sharp & B.K.Simon, AusGrass (2002); J.Jessop, G.R.M.Dashorst & F.M.James, Grasses of South Australia 450, fig.382 (2006)..

Annual. Flowering culms erect, 15–130 cm tall, 3–6 noded. Leaves; ligule absent; blades  5–30 cm long, 4–15 mm wide, with smooth margins or with scabrous margins. Inflorescence 2.5–13 cm long. Primary branches with spikelets appressed to the rachis, 0.9–4 cm long, scabrous on the margins. Spikelets paired or in clusters, ovate to elliptic, 4–5.7 mm long, 1.7–2.2 mm wide. Glumes distinctly keeled to rounded on the back; lower glume 1.5–2.2 mm long (half the length of the spikelet), ovate or elliptic (widely), 5–7 nerved, membranous to chartaceous, acute, mucronate; upper glume 4–5.7 mm long, 9 nerved, acuminate, mucronate. Lower floret male; lemma 3.8–5.5 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.7–2.2 mm wide, membranous to chartaceous, 5 nerved or 7 nerved, strigose, with apex acuminate; palea with a rounded apex. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret to shorter than the lower floret; lemma 3.8–5.5 mm long, yellow, indurate, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, apically rounded to acute, mucronate; palea cartilaginous to indurate, smooth to uniformily striate, caryopsis brownish. 2n = 108 (I.S. Dundas & E.J. Britten, Search 9:327 (1978)). Channel Millet.

Endemic; mostly in inland periodically wet areas of Qld and N.T and also few records from the bordering regions of N.S.W and S.A. Flowering sporadically all year but mostly Mar. to July. Map 1058.

N.T.: Rockingham Downs Stn, S.T.Blake 17861 (AD, BRI, CANB, DNA, K, NSW, PERTH). S.A.: Innaminka regional reserve, track to Congie Lakes, R.W.Purdie 4528 (AD, BRI). Qld: Nonda, C.E.Hubbard 7199 & C.W.Winders (BRI, CANB, K); c. 5 km W of Mt Surprise, R.J.Henderson 1720 (BRI). N.S.W.: “Winrae”, 7 mls S of Barringun, 14/06/1976, P.W.Michael s.n. (NSW).

Similar to E. frumentacea and E. esculenta by its very turgid and subglobose spikelets, but differs from these species by the spikelets being longer. Occurs in low-lying areas after floods.

6. *Echinochloa frumentacea Link, Hort. Berol. 1: 204 (1827)

Based on Panicum frumentaceum Roxb., Fl. Indica 1: 307 (1820), nom. illeg. non Salisb. (1796); Echinochloa colona var. frumentacea (Roxb.) Ridl., Fl. Malay Penin. 5: 223 (1925). T: India, Roxburgh; iso: K (photo BRI).

Illustrations: S.W.L.Jacobs & T.A.James in G.J.Harden (ed.), Fl. New South Wales 4: 474 (1993); D.Sharp & B.K.Simon, AusGrass (2002); Linda A.Vorobik in M.E.Barkworth, K.M.Capels, S.Long & M.B.Piep (eds.) Flora of North America North of Mexico 25: 401 (2003).

Annual. Flowering culms erect, 50–120 cm tall, 5–8 noded. Leaves; ligule absent; blades  8–35 cm long, 7–22 mm wide, with scabrous margins. Inflorescence not fully exserted, 7–17 cm long. Primary branches with spikelets appressed to the rachis, 1.5–3 cm long, scabrous on the margins or scabrous on the margins and hairy on the margins. Lowermost inflorescence node differentiated or not differentiated. Spikelets paired or in clusters, ovate or elliptic, 2.5–3.1 mm long, 1.7–2 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 0.8–1.6 mm long, ovate, 3–5 nerved, membranous, acute, muticous or mucronate; upper glume 5 nerved, acute, muticous or mucronate. Lower floret sterile; lemma 2.4–3 mm long, as long to slightly longer than upper glume, 1.7–2 mm wide, membranous to chartaceous, 5 nerved or 7 nerved, strigose, with apex acute; palea acute to with a rounded apex. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret; lemma 2.2–2.9 mm long, yellow to brown, cartilaginous, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, apically rounded, mucronate; palea cartilaginous, smooth. Caryopsis whitish. 2n = 54 (T. Yabuno, Cytologia 27, 298 (1962)). Siberian Millet, Indian barnyard millet.

Introduced; all Australian States except NT and SA (Map 1057 of Vol 43). Flowering Oct. to May. Map 1057.

W.A.: Mt. Barker, Mar 1977, G. Perry s.n. (PERTH); Ord R., Apr. 1945, K.M.Durack (PERTH). Qld: between Lanefield and Rosewood, C.E.Hubbard 2141 (BRI, CANB). N.S.W.: Albury, R,G,Coveny 12918, W.Bishop & J.M.Dalby (BRI, MEL, NSW, US, UTC). Vic.: Melbourne, 7 Glenluss St., M.G.Corrick 7570 (CANB). Tas.: Glenorchy Tip, D.I.Morris 86641 (HO).

The relationship between E. frumentacea and E. esculenta is not clear, and they intergrade morphologically. E. frumentacea can be distinguished from E. esculenta by its pallid panicle and thinner texture of the glumes and lower lemma (Yabuno 1987). Also the colour of the caryopsis in E. frumentacea is pearly white caryopsis whereas at maturity the caryopsis of E. esculenta is dull, pale yellow to light brown. In general, E. esculenta has larger spikelets and longer primary branches. They can be distinguished from the wild forms by the compacted primary branches and the tightly clustered spikelets on these branches. E. frumentacea is genomically identical to E. colona (Yabuno 1987). Cultivated for (food and birdseed) grain and forage, and are useful soil stabilizers, but also occur as weedy escapes from cultivation.

7. *Echinochloa esculenta (A.Braun) H.Scholz, Taxon 41: 523 (1992)

T: Koernicke s.n., Cult. Hort. Bonn-Poppelsdorf, 28 Oct 1875 (B); neo: B, n.v., fide H.Scholz, Taxon 41: 523 (1992).

Panicum esculentum A.Braun, Append. Pl. Nov. Hort. Berol. 1861: 3 (1862). T: cult. hort. Bonn-Poppelsdorf, 28 Oct. 1875, F.A.Körnicke; neo: B n.v., fide H.Scholz, loc. cit.

Echinochloa utilis Ohwi & Yabuno, Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 20: 50–51 (1962); E. frumentacea subsp. utilis (Ohwi & Yabuno) Tzvelev, Nov. Sist. Vysh. Rast. 1968: 17 (1968). T: Honshu, Japan, Sakai in prov. Izumi, 8.1961, T. Yabuno s.n.; holo: TNS, n.v..

Illustrations: N.G.Walsh in N.G.Walsh & T.J.Entwisle (eds), Fl. Victoria 2: 592, fig. 120k (1994); W.M.Curtis & D.I.Morris, Stud. Fl. Tasmania 4B: 337 (1994), as E. utilis ; D.Sharp & B.K.Simon, AusGrass (2002).

Annual. Flowering culms 30–120 cm tall, 4–7 noded. Leaves; ligule absent; blades  8–30 cm long, 7–24 mm wide, with scabrous margins. Inflorescence not fully exserted, 7–16 cm long. Primary branches 3.1–7 cm long, distinctly grooved or angled, not winged, scabrous on the margins and hairy on the margins. Lowermost inflorescence node differentiated. Spikelets paired or in clusters, broadly elliptic, 3.2–4 mm long, 1.9–2.5 mm wide; lower glume 1.1–1.6 mm long, 3–5 nerved, membranous, acuminate, mucronate; upper glume 3.1–4 mm long (not covering upper lemma at maturity), 5 nerved, acuminate, mucronate. Lower floret sterile; lemma 3.1–4 mm long; palea acute to with a rounded apex. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret; lemma 2.9–3.5 mm long, indurate, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, acuminate, muticous. Caryopsis brownish. 2n = 54 (T. Yabuno, Rep. Kihara Inst.Biol.Res (Seiken Ziho) 6: 68  (1953) as E.. frumentacea (Sawa Millet). Japanese Millet.

Introduced; all Australian States except NT. Flowering Sep. to Apr. Map 1056.

W.A.: Lesmurdie, A.A.Mitchell 4166 (PERTH). N.T.: Palmerston, A.A.Mitchell 6900 (BRI, DNA, NSW). S.A.: McLaren Flat, R.J.Bates 26067 (AD, BRI). Qld: Morven, S.T.Blake 11010 (BRI). N.S.W.: near Yass, Waterworks Rd, E.M.Canning 6860 (BRI, CANB, MEL, NSW). A.C.T.: Farrer, M.Gray 6935 & E. D'Arnay (BRI, CANB). Vic: Hawthorne, S.Forbes 2817 (BRI, MEL). Tas.: McRobies Gully, Hobart, D.I.Morris 86523 (HO).

Generally similar and genomically identical to E. crus-galli and but has a denser inflorescence with compacted primary branches. Distinguished from E. frumentacea  by the spikelets being purplish to blackish-brown and the grain being dull, pale yellow to light brown. Grown for forage and bird seed and frequently escapes cultivation. Also used to establish a quick grass cover in landscaping work. Cultivated for (food and birdseed) grain and forage, and are useful soil stabilizers, but also occur as weedy escapes from cultivation.

8. *Echinochloa oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch, Verh. K.K. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien 41: 742 (1891)

Panicum oryzoides Ard., Animad. Bot. Spec. Alt. 2: 16, t.5 (1764). T: holo: Italy: Arduino, LINN 80.68 (LINN).

Illustrations: S.W.L.Jacobs & T.A.James in G.J.Harden (ed.), Fl. New South Wales 4: 475 (1993); D.Sharp & B.K.Simon, AusGrass (2002); Linda A.Vorobik in M.E.Barkworth, K.M.Capels, S.Long & M.B.Piep (eds.) Flora of North America North of Mexico 25: 403 (2003).

Annual. Flowering culms erect, 50–100 cm tall, 4–6 noded. Leaves; ligule absent; blades  7–20 cm long, 4–12 mm wide, with smooth margins. Inflorescence 8–15 cm long, hanging more or less horizontally at maturity. Primary branches with spikelets appressed to the rachis, 3.1–6 cm long, scabrous on the margins and hairy on the margins. Spikelets paired or in clusters, elliptic, 4.2–5.6 mm long, 1.9–2.4 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 1.5–2.2 mm long, ovate, membranous, acute, mucronate; upper glume 4.1–5.5 mm long, 5 nerved, acuminate, mucronate or awned. Lower floret sterile; lemma 4.1–5.5 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.9–2.4 mm wide, chartaceous, 5 nerved, strigose, with apex acuminate, awn 5–25 mm long; palea acute. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret or shorter than the lower floret; lemma 3.5–4.5 mm long, yellow, indurate, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, acute, mucronate; palea indurate, smooth. Anthers 0.75–1 mm long. Caryopsis 2.5–3.5 mm long, brownish. Rachilla not prolonged beyond the upper floret. 2n = 54 (T.Yabuno, Cytologia 49: 675 (1984)). Hairy Millet.

Introduced; common in rice fields in southern N.S.W. Rare outside rice fields and in WA, Qld  and Tas. Flowering Jan. to Apr. Map 1059.

W.A.: Kimberley Research Stn., E.C.B.Langfield 68 (CANB). Qld: Arriga, weed in rice, Sep 1982, E.Gilbert s.n. (BRI). N.S.W.: near Griffith, Jan. 1971, P.Michael s.n. (BRI); Yanco, E.Boerema 3 (CANB); Tullakool, J.H.Leigh 1.1966 (CANB, NSW). Tas.: Triabunna, D.I.Morris 86552 (HO).

Echinochloa oryzoides is probably a selected variant of E. crus-galli, from which it is differentiated on the size of the spikelet and grain. It vegetatively mimics rice and, as a result, occurs in most of the rice-growing areas of the world.

9. Echinochloa kimberleyensis P.W.Michael & Vickery, Telopea 2: 25 (1980)

T: Grown at Kimberley Research Stn, W.A., E.C.B.Langfield 211; holo: CANB (photo BRI); iso: CANB.

Illustrations: D.Sharp & B.K.Simon, AusGrass (2002).

Robust annual. Flowering culms erect, 70–150 cm tall, 5–6 noded. Leaves; ligule a fringe of hairs (sometimes very sparse); blades  15–42 cm long, 4–15 mm wide, with scabrous margins. Inflorescence 13–24 cm long. Primary branches 4–8 cm long, hairy on the margins (and scabrous). Spikelets paired or in clusters, elliptic, 5–6.5 mm long, 1.85–2.2 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 2–2.9 mm long, ovate, 5 nerved, membranous, acute, muticous; upper glume 4.7–6.7 mm long, 5–7 nerved, acuminate, awned. Lower floret sterile; lemma 4.7–6.7 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.85–2.2 mm wide, membranous, 5 nerved or 7 nerved, with apex acuminate, awn 25–100 mm long; palea acute. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret; lemma 5–6.5 mm long, white to yellow, cartilaginous to indurate, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, acute to acuminate, mucronate or awned; palea cartilaginous to indurate, smooth. Anthers 1.5–2.1 mm long. Caryopsis 2.5–3.5 mm long, whitish. Fig xx.

Endemic; known from a few swamps of tropical regions of W.A. and Qld. Flowering Feb. to July. Map 1061.

W.A.: 8km NNE of Kununurra. 5km from Cave Paintings turnoff on road to Kimberley Research Station, B.K.Simon 3699 & R.J.Petheram (BRI, CANB, PERTH); Martin's Swamp, 6 miles [9.7 km] NW of Kimberley Research Stn., E.C.B.Langfield (CANB). Qld: Forest Home Stn., L.Brass 1886 (BRI, CANB); 24 miles [38.6 km] NW of Strathmore Stn., M.Lazarides 3913A (CANB).

Diagnostic characteristics of E. kimberleyensis include spikelet length, the appressed primary branches of the inflorescence, the absence of stamens in the lower floret, and the attenuate spikelet base. The species differs from E. elliptica  by the longer spikelets and a vestigial lower palea and from E. macrandra by the lower florets being sterile and not staminate.

10. Echinochloa macrandra P.W.Michael & Vickery, Telopea 2: 27 (1980)

T: The Razorbacks, near 65 mile peg on Wyndham to Darwin road, W.A., 17 Apr. 1956, N.T.Burbidge 5185; holo: CANB (photo BRI).

[E. stagnina auct, non (Retz.)Beauv.].

Illustrations: D.Sharp & B.K.Simon, AusGrass (2002).

Annual. Flowering culms erect, 70–160 cm tall, 6–8 noded. Leaves; ligule a fringe of hairs; blades  12–40 cm long, 4–14 mm wide, with scabrous margins. Inflorescence 11–25 cm long. Primary branches reduced to fascicles of spikelets, 4–6 cm long, scabrous on the margins and hairy on the margins. Spikelets paired and in clusters, elliptic, 4.5–5 mm long, 1.7–2.4 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 2.2–3.1 mm long, ovate, 5–7 nerved, hyaline to membranous, acute, muticous or mucronate; upper glume 4.6–5.7 mm long, 7 nerved, acuminate, awned. Lower floret male; lemma 4.6–5.7 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.7–2.4 mm wide, membranous, 7 nerved, strigose, with apex acuminate, awn 20–80 mm long; palea acute. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret; lemma 4.5–5 mm long, white to yellow, cartilaginous to indurate, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, acute, mucronate; palea cartilaginous to indurate, smooth. Anthers 2.5–2.8 mm long. Caryopsis 2.5–3.5 mm long. n = 54 (T. Yabuno, Jap.J.Bot. 19: 298 (1966) as E.stagnina strain W662). Fig xx.

Endemic; known from three collections from swamps of the Kununurra region of W.A and the adjacent Keep River N.P. in the N.T. Flowering Mar. to Apr. Map 1062.

W.A.: ca 9 km NNE of old `Napier Downs', S.W.L. Jacobs 5617 & Peter G. Wilson (NSW, PERTH); 5 km SSE of Kununurra, K.Paijmans 2318 (CANB, PERTH); near Racecourse, Kununurra, T.E.H. Aplin 6359 (BRI, PERTH). N.T.: Keep River Natl Park, C.R.Dunlop 5781 (BRI, CANB, DNA, PERTH).

More collections are needed to elucidate the range in morphological variation. It is morphologically similar to E. elliptica and E. kimberleyensis, differing from them by the lower spikelet being staminate and not sterile. Diagnostic features of E. macrandra include the spreading primary branches, the well-developed palea of the lower floret and the truncate spikelet base.

11. Echinochloa dietrichiana P.W. Michael, Telopea 8: 403 (1999)

T: South Johnstone, Qld, 17 33'S, 146E, Bed of rivers on alluvial sand and gravel, 17 Jan 1969, R.H. Edmondson s.n.; holo: BRI.

Annual. Flowering culms often decumbent (and rooting at the lower nodes), 150–200 cm tall, 5–8 noded. Leaves; ligule absent; blades  20–30 cm long, to 10 mm wide, with scabrous margins (at base and also on upper leaf sheaths). Inflorescence 10–27 cm long. Spikelets paired (unequally pedicelled), 2.5–3 mm long; lower glume c. 1.5 mm long, 3–5 nerved (hispid), long or abruptly acuminate; upper glume 2.5–3 mm long, 5 nerved, awned. Lower floret sterile, or male (rarely); lemma 2.5–3 mm long, 5 nerved, awn 2–13(–15) mm long; lemma crustaceous. Anthers 1–1.2 mm long. Caryopsis 1.6–1.8 mm long. Caryopsis brownish.

Endemic; coastal N.T. and central coastal Qld with a few records from more inland localities. Flowering Jan. to Sep. Map 1063.

N.T.: 15 km NNW of Elsey HS, Roper R, P.K.Latz 11155 (BRI, DNA). Qld: Barron River crossing on road from Kennedy Highway to Tinaroo Creek Road along East Barron Main Channel, J.R.Clarkson 5079 (BRI, K, NSW); Toomba, NW of Charters Towers, S.W.L.Jacobs 8112 (B, BRI, L, NSW); Bob's Ck, S of Rockhampton on Bundaberg Rd, May 1972, P.W.Michael s.n.(BRI, SYD); Torilla, between Broad Sound and Shoalwater, S.T.Blake 15623 & L.J.Webb (BRI).

E. dietrichiana is similar to E. telmatophila, a native anuual and E. crus-galli subsp. hispidula, a common weed of rice on the Indian subcontinent, south-east Asia, China and Japan. It differs from E. telmatophila by its shorter and narrower leaves and by the lack of purplish colouration in the inflorescence. The awns from the upper glume and lower lemma are also much shorter than in E. telmatophila. It's very hispid spikelets distinguish it from E. crus-galli subsp. hispidula and moreover it has uniformly slightly smaller spikelets. The name commemorates Amalie Dietrich (1821–1891).(Michael 1999)

It is non-weedy and is often replaced by weedy Urochloa mutica and Megathyrsus maximus.

12. Echinochloa telmatophila P.W.Michael & Vickery, Telopea 1: 44 (1975)

T: Lane Cove Natl Park, N.S.W., 3 Mar 1962, M.Gray 5201; holo: CANB (photo BRI).

[E. walteri auct. non (Pursh) Heller: S.T.Blake, Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland 62: 91 (1952)].

Illustrations: S.W.L.Jacobs & T.A.James in G.J.Harden (ed.), Fl. New South Wales 4: 476 (1993); D.Sharp & B.K.Simon, AusGrass (2002).

Annual. Flowering culms erect or decumbent, 50–180 cm tall, 4–6 noded. Leaves; ligule absent; blades  10–35 cm long, 7–18 mm wide, with scabrous margins. Inflorescence 20–35 cm long. Primary branches with spikelets appressed to the rachis, 1.5–8 cm long, scabrous on the margins. Spikelets paired or in clusters, linear (narrowly), 3–4.2 mm long, 1.2–1.5 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 1.1–1.5 mm long, ovate, 3–5 nerved, membranous, acute, mucronate; upper glume 3–4.2 mm long, 5 nerved, acuminate, awned. Lower floret sterile; lemma 3–4.2 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.2–1.5 mm wide, membranous, 5 nerved, strigose, with apex acuminate, awn 10–40 mm long; palea acute. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret; lemma 2.9–4.1 mm long, yellow, indurate, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, acute, mucronate. Awn purplish; palea indurate, smooth. Anthers 0.6–1.5 mm long. 2n = 54 (Knox & Michael unpubl. in P. Michael 64 (2001 loc.cit.). Swamp Barnyard Grass.

Endemic; scattered in wet areas in W.A. (where introduced from eastern Australia), Qld and N.S.W. with a denser concentration in S.E.Qld.. Flowering Dec. to Apr. Map 1064.

W.A.: Maylands, Feb 1967, J. Rose (PERTH). Qld: bank of South Pine R., C.E.Hubbard 5496 (BRI); near Mapleton, S.T.Blake 14176 (BRI); Stradbroke Is., B.K.Simon 2521 (BRI, CANB). N.S.W.: Woodenbong to Urberville, M.Gray 3791 (CANB).

Diagnostic characteristics include the narrow elliptic spikelets, the uniformly long awned spikelets, an absent Leaves; ligule and a relatively small lower glume. Echinochloa telmatophila belongs to the annual group of species without a  ligule . It is similar to E. dietrichiana in having distinctly awned upper glumes as opposed to the remainder of the group having upper glumes which are not or scarcely awned. It differs from E. dietrichiana by the upper glume having much longer awns.

13. Echinochloa elliptica P.W.Michael & Vickery, Telopea 2: 28 (1980)

T: Coastal Plains Research Stn, 30 miles [48.3 km] SE of Darwin, N.T., 13 Mar 1963, M.Lazarides 6805; holo: CANB (photo BRI); iso: K, NT.

Annual. Flowering culms erect, 50–150 cm tall, 4–7 noded. Leaves; ligule a fringe of hairs, 0.3–1 mm long; blades  10–50 cm long, 6–15 mm wide, with smooth margins or with scabrous margins. Inflorescence 6–15 cm long, spidle-shaped. Primary branches 2.5–4 cm long, scabrous on the margins and hairy on the margins. Spikelets paired, elliptic, 4–4.5 mm long, 1.4–1.6 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 1.7–2.2 mm long, ovate, 3–5 nerved, membranous, acute, mucronate or awned; upper glume 4.1–4.9 mm long, 5–7 nerved, acuminate, awned. Lower floret sterile; lemma 4.1–4.9 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.4–1.6 mm wide, membranous, 5–7 nerved, strigose, with apex acuminate, awn 6–30 mm long; palea acute to with a rounded apex. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret to shorter than the lower floret; lemma 3.2–4.5 mm long, yellow, cartilaginous, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, apically rounded, mucronate. Awn pale; palea cartilaginous, smooth. Anthers 0.75–1 mm long. Caryopsis whitish, 1.9-2.3 mm long. Fig xx.

Endemic; restricted to seasonally wet areas of the Kimberley region of W.A., tropical N.T., and tropical Qld.. Flowering probably throughout the year. Map 1065.

W.A.: 15 km ENE of Wyndham, K.Paijmans 2275 (CANB); 30 km NW of Kununurra, K.Paijmans 2234 (CANB, PERTH). N.T.: N of Fogg Dam, M.O.Madsen 19 (BRI, DNA, MEL); near mouth of Finniss R, G.J.Leach 2713 & I.D.Cowie (BRI, CANB, DNA); Qld: 17 Km N of Bizant HS, Lakefield NP, V.J.Neldner 3770 & J.R.Clarkson (BRI, CANB, L, MBA, NSW); Chudleigh Park Stn, C.E.Hubbard & C.E.Winders 7616 (BRI, K).

Similar taxa include E. kimberleyensis, E. macrandra and E. turneriana. E. elliptica differs from the first species by having shorter spikelets and by the palea of the lower floret being fully developed and not vestigial and from the latter two species by the lower floret being staminate and not sterile. Diagnostic features include the presence of a ligule, awned spikelets, and spikelet shape. Commonly a weed in rice fields. It has some weedy potential in rice, where it grows and seeds prolifically (Michael 2001).

14. *Echinochloa crus-pavonis (Kunth) Schult, Syst. Veg. Mant. 2: 269 (1824)

Oplismenus crus-pavonis Kunth in F.W.H.A.Humboldt et al., Nov. Gen. Sp. 1: 108 (1816). T: Venezuela, vicinity of Bordones, Humboldt & Bonpland s.n.holo:P (photo NSW, US) ; iso: US n.v.

Illustrations: S.A.Renvoize, Grasses Bahia 188, fig. 71C-D (1984); T.D.Stanley & E.M.Ross, Fl. SE Queensland 3: 205, fig. 32G (1989); Linda A.Vorobik in M.E.Barkworth, K.M.Capels, S.Long & M.B.Piep (eds.) Flora of North America North of Mexico 25: 399 (2003) as var. crus-pavonis.

Annual. Flowering culms erect or decumbent, 60–180 cm tall, 4–7 noded. Leaves; ligule absent (occasionally a few scattered hairs); blades  12–60 cm long, 6–25 mm wide, with scabrous margins. Inflorescence 10–26 cm long. Primary branches with spreading secondary branches, 3.5–7 cm long, scabrous on the margins and hairy on the margins. Lowermost inflorescence node differentiated or not differentiated. Spikelets paired or in clusters, elliptic, 2–3.5 mm long, 1.4–1.6 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 1.1–1.6 mm long, ovate to elliptic, 3–4 nerved, hyaline, acute, mucronate; upper glume 2–3.5 mm long, 5 nerved, margins neither noticeably flared nor hyaline, acuminate, muticous or apiculate. Lower floret sterile; lemma 2–3.5 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.4–1.6 mm wide, membranous, 5 nerved, strigose, with apex acuminate, awns curved, 1–15 mm long; palea acute to with a rounded apex. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret; lemma 2.5–3 mm long, yellow to brown, cartilaginous to indurate, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, acute, mucronate; palea cartilaginous to indurate, smooth to uniformily striate. Anthers 0.8–1.2 mm long. Caryopsis brownish. 2n = 36 (Nuňez in L.R. Parodi, Gramíneas, 4th ed., 34 (1946)). South American Barnyard Grass.

Introduced from South America; spasmodic distribution in W.A., S.A., Qld and N.S.W. A South American species rare in Australia and New Zealand, not yet recorded for Asia. Occurs in all South American countries where rice is grown and in southern U.S.A. and Mexico (Michael 1983, 2003). Flowering Feb. to Mar. Map 1070.

W.A.: Balcatta, Dept. of Agriculture s.n. (PERTH 00878634), Jan 1979 (CANB, PERTH).  S.A.: Flinders Ranges, R.Bates 23015 (AD, BRI). Qld: Duckinrilla via Howard, Feb. 1952, G.Claxton s.n. (BRI). N.S.W.: Sydney, M.Gray 6088 (CANB); Camden, Feb. 1971, P.Michael & J.Vickery s.n. (BRI, CANB).

This is a species with softly-bristled spikelets and very strongly nodding inflorescences (Michael 2001). Diagnostic features include the length of the upper floret and distinct secondary branching of the primary branches. Spreading secondary branches do not occur in the inflorescence of other annual species except in long- panicled forms of E. crus- galli. .

15. *Echinochloa muricata (P.Beauv.) Fernald, Rhodora 17: 106 (1915

var. microstachya Wiegand, Rhodora 23: 58 (1921)

Echinochloa microstachya Wiegand, Brittonia 1: 82 (1931).; Echinochloa muricata subsp. microstachya (Wiegand) P.Jauzein, Monde Pl. 88(446): 3 (1993. T: Cayuga L. Basin, New York, E.L.Palmer 97; holo: GH, n.v..

Illustrations: S.W.L.Jacobs & T.A.James in G.J.Harden (ed.), Fl. New South Wales 4: 475 (1993) as E. microstachya; N.G.Walsh in N.G.Walsh & T.J.Entwisle (eds), Fl. Victoria 2: 592, fig. 120g-h (1994) Linda A.Vorobik in M.E.Barkworth, K.M.Capels, S.Long & M.B.Piep (eds.) Flora of North America North of Mexico 25: 397 (2003)

Annual. Flowering culms erect, 50–100 cm tall, 2–4 noded. Leaves; ligule absent; blades  7–20 cm long, 4–11 mm wide, with smooth margins or with scabrous margins. Inflorescence not fully exserted, 6–13 cm long. Primary branches with spreading secondary branches or with spikelets appressed to the rachis, 2–5 cm long, scabrous on the margins or hairy on the margins. Spikelets in clusters, elliptic, 3–3.7 mm long, 1.4–1.7 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 0.8–1.2 mm long, ovate (to orbicular), 3–5 nerved, membranous, acuminate, mucronate or awned; upper glume 3–3.7 mm long, 5 nerved, acuminate, mucronate. Lower floret sterile; lemma 3–3.7 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.4–1.7 mm wide, membranous, 5 nerved, strigose, with apex acuminate, awn 1–8 mm long; palea acute to with a rounded apex. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret or shorter than the lower floret. Upper floret apex abruptly terminating in a fragile tip to 0.5 mm long; lemma 2.5–3.2 mm long, yellow, cartilaginous, elliptic, the apex gradually differentiated into a membranous green point, mucronate; palea cartilaginous, smooth. Anthers 0.4–1.1 mm long. Caryopsis yellowish. 2n = 36 (F. W. Gould et al., American Midland Naturalist 87:41 (1972)).

Introduced from North America; most common in the western part of the United States. It has been introduced into the Riverina where it is spreading as a common weed of rice paddocks. It has been recorded from New Zealand and occasionally Europe, but not yet from Asia (Michael 2001). Flowering Jan. to Feb. Map 1068.

N.S.W.: Walla Road, Jan 1971, near Griffith, P. Michael s.n. (BRI, MEL, NSW); Old Flemington saleyards, Feb.1971, P.Michael s.n. (BRI, MEL, NSW). Vic.:One Mile Ck, Wangaratta, A.D.J. Piesse 200 (MEL); Greta, J.Strudwick 0295 (MEL); Wonnangatta R, 18 km ESE of Mt. Howitt, A.C.Beauglehole 40955 & E.A.Chesterfield (MEL)

It differs from E. muricata var. muricata by the spikelets being slightly shorter and generally with shorter awns.  The type variety  has not been recorded as occurring in Australia.


16. Echinochloa inundata P.W.Michael & Vickery, Telopea 1: 46 (1975)

T: Boorooma Ck, between Walgett and Brewarrina, N.S.W., 27 Feb 1968, P.Michael A80; holo: NSW (photo BRI).

Illustrations: S.W.L.Jacobs & T.A.James in G.J.Harden (ed.), Fl. New South Wales 4: 476 (1993); D.Sharp & B.K.Simon, AusGrass (2002); J.Jessop, G.R.M.Dashorst & F.M.James, Grasses of South Australia 448, fig.380 (2006)..

Annual. Flowering culms erect, 30–150 cm tall, 4–6 noded. Leaves; ligule absent; blades  10–40 cm long, 7–15 mm wide, with smooth margins or with scabrous margins. Inflorescence 15–25 cm long. Primary branches with spikelets appressed to the rachis, 3.1–8 cm long, scabrous on the margins. Spikelets in clusters, elliptic, 3.5–5 mm long, 1.5–2.2 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 1.3–2.4 mm long, ovate, 3 nerved, membranous, acute, mucronate or awned; upper glume 3.3–4.8 mm long, 5–7 nerved, acuminate, mucronate. Lower floret sterile; lemma 3.3–4.8 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.5–2.2 mm wide, membranous, 5 nerved or 7 nerved, strigose, with apex acuminate, awn 0.5–20 mm long; palea with a rounded apex. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret. Upper floret apex gradually narrowing into a firm tip to 1.5 mm long; lemma 3.1–3.8 mm long, yellow to brown, indurate, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, apically rounded to acute, mucronate; palea indurate, smooth. Anthers 1–1.3 mm long. Caryopsis 1.8-2.2 mm long, brownish. 2n = 72 (Knox & Michael unpubl. in P. Michael 63 (2001 loc.cit.)). Marsh Millet.

Endemic;  mainly in seasonally wet areas in southern Qld and northern NSW. Rarely in coastal areas. Flowering Feb. to July. Map 1069.

S.A.: Roxby Downs, F.J.Badman 4694b (AD, BRI); 20 km SE of Gidgealpa waterhole, L.D.Williams 8204 (AD). Qld: Mundubbera, H.S.Bloxsome 70 (BRI); 3 km S of Doongmabulla HS, E.J.Thompson GAL70 & B.K.Simon (BRI, CANB, NSW, K). N.S.W.: between Nyngan and Walgett, P.W.Michael A58 (CANB).

Morphologically similar to E. turneriana. It differs in lacking a ligule , the spikelets are typically larger and the lower lemma typically has a pronounced awn. A native fodder and Aboriginal food plant. It occurs after flood rains, particularly in inland Qld and NSW. It is rarely weedy in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area (Michael 2001).

17. *Echinochloa colona (L.) Link, Hort. Berol. 2: 209 (1833)

Panicum colonum L., Syst. Nat. 10th edn, 2: 870 (1759); Oplismenus colonus (L.) Kunth in F.W.H.A.Humboldt et al, Nov. Gen. Sp. 1: 108 (1816); Echinochloa crus-galli subsp. colona (L.) Honda, Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 37: 122 (1923). T: Jamaica, P.Browne s.n.; lecto: LINN 80.23 (LINN), fide Clayton & Renvoize, Fl.Tr. E. Africa Gramineae 3: 557 (1982).

Illustrations: N.G.Walsh in N.G.Walsh & T.J.Entwisle (eds), Fl. Victoria 2: 592, fig. 120e-f (1994); I.D.Cowie, P.S.Short & M.Osterkamp Madsen, Floodplain Flora 290, Fig 71 (2000); Linda A.Vorobik in M.E.Barkworth, K.M.Capels, S.Long & M.B.Piep (eds.) Flora of North America North of Mexico 25: 401 (2003).

Annual, stoloniferous or without stolons. Flowering culms erect or decumbent, 10–90 cm tall, 3–8 noded. Leaves; ligule absent; blades  3–22 cm long, 3–7.5 mm wide, with smooth margins (occasionally minutely scabrous). Inflorescence 3–13 cm long. Primary branches with spikelets appressed to the rachis, 1–3 cm long, scabrous on the margins. Spikelets paired (typically) or in clusters, ovate to elliptic, 2.1–2.9 mm long, 1.1–1.5 mm wide. Glumes distinctly keeled to rounded on the back; lower glume 1.1–1.5 mm long, ovate, 3–5 nerved, membranous, acute to cleft, muticous or mucronate; upper glume 2–2.8 mm long, 5 nerved, acute, mucronate. Lower floret sterile, or male; lemma 2–2.8 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.1–1.5 mm wide, membranous, 5 nerved, strigose, with apex acute; palea acute to with a rounded apex. Upper floret subequal to the lower floret (disregarding the mucronate part of the lower lemma). Upper floret apex gradually narrowing into a firm tip to 1.5 mm long; lemma 1.9–2.9 mm long, yellow to brown, indurate, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, apically rounded to acute, mucronate; palea cartilaginous, smooth or uniformily striate. Anthers 0.6–0.8 mm long. Caryopsis 1.1–1.2 mm long, brownish. 2n = 54 (J.M.J. de Wet, Cytologia 19: 98 (1954)). Awnless Barnyard Grass.

Common weed of irrigated crops and seasonally wet areas. Introduced from throughout the tropics; in all mainland States, although more common in the tropics. Extending into the rice growing areas of N.S.W.; rare in Vic., Tas, S.A. and south-western W.A.. Flowering sporadically throughout the year. Map 1066.

W.A.: Ivanhoe Crossing, K.T.Richards 16 (PERTH). N.T.: Avon Downs, G.Chippendale 7272 (BRI, NT); S.A.:Simarloo Orchard, near Loxton, D.E.Symon 11994 (AD). Qld: Rockhampton, C.E.Hubbard 8059 (BRI). N.S.W.: Gillies Bridge, c.4 km W of Temora, J.M.Dalby 88/03, W.Bishop & R.G.Coveny (B, BRI, G, NSW, S, US). Vic: Murchison, R.V.Smith 70/7 (BRI, CANB, MEL).

There is much variation in this species which has not yet been properly documented. There may be native forms present also. Growth habit varies from low spreading forms to erect close-tufted forms commenn in wetland rice (Michael 2001). Diagnostic features of E. colona include spikelet length, length of the upper floret, awnless spikelets and the arrangement of the spikelets in 4 uniform rows on the primary branches. A widespread weed throughout the tropics, sub-tropics and warm temperate regions. Growth habit varies from low spreading forms to erect close-tufted forms common as a weed in rice.

18. *Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv., Ess. Agrostogr. 53, 161, 169, pl. xi fig. 2 (1812)

Panicum crus-galli L., Sp. Pl. 56 (1753); Oplismenus crus-galli (L.) Dumort., Observ. Gramin. Belg. 138 (1823); Orthopogon crus-galli (L.) Spreng., Syst. Veg. 1: 307 (1824). T: Europe : Burser 1:103; lecto: UPS. (photo NSW),  fide P.W. Michael, Weed Control in Rice (IRRI) 300 (1983)

Panicum hispidulum Retz., Obs. Bot. 5: 18 (1788). T: "ex India Orientali", Konig s.n.; holo: LD (photo BRI); iso: BRI.

Illustrations: N.G.Walsh in N.G.Walsh & T.J.Entwisle (eds), Fl. Victoria 2: 592, fig. 120i-j (1994); W.M.Curtis & D.I.Morris, Stud. Fl. Tasmania 4B: 337 (1994); Linda A.Vorobik in M.E.Barkworth, K.M.Capels, S.Long & M.B.Piep (eds.) Flora of North America North of Mexico 25: 403 (2003).

Annual. Flowering culms erect, 25–150 cm tall, 4–7 noded. Leaves; ligule absent; blades  0.5–30 cm long, 6–200 mm wide, with scabrous margins. Inflorescence 6–10 cm long. Primary branches with spikelets appressed to the rachis, 3.1–7 cm long, scabrous on the margins and hairy on the margins. Secondary branches inconspicuous or sometimes pronounced in long-panicled forms. Spikelets paired or in clusters, lanceolate to elliptic, 3–4 mm long, 1.4–1.7 mm wide. Glumes rounded on the back; lower glume 0.8–1.4 mm long, ovate or elliptic (to orbicular), 3–5 nerved, membranous, acute, mucronate; upper glume 3–4 mm long, 5 nerved, acuminate, mucronate. Lower floret sterile; lemma 3–4 mm long, 20–30% longer than upper glume, 1.4–1.7 mm wide, membranous, 5–7 nerved, strigose, with apex acuminate, awn 0–50 mm long; palea with a rounded apex. Upper floret shorter than the lower floret. Upper floret apex gradually narrowing into a firm tip to 1.5 mm long; lemma 2.5–3 mm long, yellow, cartilaginous to indurate, elliptic, the apex sharply differentiated into a membranous green point, apically rounded (with minute macrohairs), mucronate; palea cartilaginous to indurate, smooth. Anthers 0.9–1.1 mm long. Caryopsis 1.2–1.6 mm long, brownish. 2n = 54 (T. Yabuno, Rep. Kihara Inst.Biol.Res (Seiken Ziho) 6: 68  (1953) as E. crus-galli var. caudata and var. praticola). Barnyard Grass.

Introduced from Europe and perhaps elsewhere; occurring in all States but more widespread in eastern Australia. There are several varieties. E. crus-galli var. crus-galli (in Australia) occurs in the cool and warm-temperate parts of the Asia-Pacific region. It is replaced by var. hispidula, with crowded and less pyramidal inflorescences in sub-tropical and tropical areas of Asia, but strangely, rare in Australia. E. crus-galli var. praticola and var. austro-japonica are other Asia-Pacific varieties. Flowering mostly Nov. to Apr. Map 1067.

W.A.: Pemberton, Max Kock 2547 (PERTH). N.T.: Alice Springs, A.S.Mitchell s.n. (NT). S.A.: Eyre Peninsula region, L.D.Williams 7944 (AD). Qld: Don R., S.T.Blake 18588 (BRI). N.S.W.: Yanco, E.B.Boerema 6 (CANB). A.C.T.: Canberra, C.P.Bown s.n., Feb 1966 (BRI). Vic. Bacchus Marsh Railway Station, V. Stajsic 1188 (AD, BRI, CANB, MEL, NSW). Tas.: Hillwood, D.Sharp 147 & B.K.Simon (BRI, HO, MEL, NSW).

E. crus-galli can usually be distinguished from other species on spikelet length, presence of setae on the primary branches, absence of a ligule and shape of the lemma apex. It is a weed in waste areas and agricultural land. A vigorous competitor for soil nitrogen in rice crops and is ranked among the world's most serious weeds in temperate and tropical crops, and flood mitigation channels.

Scratchpads developed and conceived by (alphabetical): Ed Baker, Katherine Bouton Alice Heaton Dimitris Koureas, Laurence Livermore, Dave Roberts, Simon Rycroft, Ben Scott, Vince Smith